Motivation : biological, psychological, and environmental

Preface Part I: Introduction and History 1     Introduction to Motivation and EmotionMeaning of MotivationTo be Moved into ActionKnowledge, Competence, and MotivationDeterminism versus Free Will and Free ActSection RecapSources of MotivationInternal Sources Linking Biological and Psychological VariablesExternal SourcesThe Past as a Source of Motivation Combined Internal and External Sources Motivate BehaviorMotivation SequenceEmotionsSection RecapStudy of Motivation and EmotionResearch in Motivation Research in EmotionSources and Scope of MotivationSection RecapActivities 2     The History of Motivation and EmotionBrief History of MotivationAristotle’s TheoryHedonismEvolution and MotivationUnconscious MotivationInternal Sources of MotivationCommonality among Instincts, Drives, and NeedsExternal Sources of MotivationExternal and Internal Sources Induce BehaviorSection RecapBrief History of EmotionEmotion as Subjective FeelingBasic EmotionsEmotion as Motive for Action and ThoughtAccompaniments of EmotionSection RecapActivitiesPart II: Biological Properties of Motivation 3     Evolutionary Antecedents of MotivationEvolution of Universal MotivesEvolutionary History and Personal HistoryEvolutionary PsychologySection RecapUniversal Motives of Sex, Fear, Food, and MusicSelecting a MateMaintaining RelationshipsBiosocial TheoryFear as a Universal MotiveLiking and Preferences for FoodsUniversal Appeal of MusicSection RecapActivities 4     Addictions and Addictive BehaviorsDrugs of Abuse and AddictionPsychoactive DrugsExtent of Drug UseCharacteristics of AddictionInitiation into Drug UseSection RecapTheories of Drug AddictionDiscovery of Pleasure Centers in the BrainPleasure Emerges from the BrainPsychological TheoriesConditioning TheoriesEvents That Lead to Drug RelapseDrug-Use ReinforcementCognition and AddictionSection RecapBehavioral AddictionsExercise Addiction and Drug AddictionEndorphins and Exercise-Induced EuphoriaGambling AddictionSection RecapActivities 5     Homeostasis:  Temperature, Thirst, Hunger, and EatingInternal Factors of Body RegulationHomeostasisNegative Feedback SystemEffects of Deviation from Set PointThermoregulationThirst and DrinkingThe Body’s Energy RequirementsShort- and Long-Term Energy RegulationHunger SensationsFeedback Mechanisms for SatietySection RecapFood Characteristics and EatingCephalic ResponsesPalatability and Amount of FoodSensory-Specific SatietyFood PreferencesSection RecapPerson Characteristics and EatingBoundary Model of EatingCognitive Release of Diet RestraintStress-Induced EatingHunger BoundarySection RecapActivities 6     Behavior, Arousal and Affective ValenceArousal and PerformanceAn Analogy for ArousalCategories of ArousalSources of ArousalArousal and BehaviorSection RecapTheories about the Performance-Arousal RelationshipHull-Spence Drive TheoryCusp Catastrophe ModelCue Utilization HypothesisProcessing Efficiency TheorySection RecapArousal and Affective ValenceVariation in Affective ValenceStimulus Complexity and Affective ValenceIncongruity Resolution in Music, Humor and SuspenseMusicIncongruity Resolution and HumorResolution of SuspenseSection RecapActivities 7     Stress, Coping, and HealthRelationship between Life Events and StressDemands, Strain, Coping, and StressCharacteristics of StressCharacteristics of StressorsStressor-Stress RelationshipSection RecapBodily Effects of StressPhysiological Effects of StressorsStressors and Psychophysiological DisordersStressors and the Immune SystemSection RecapVariables Moderating the Impact of Life EventsAppraisal of Life EventsCoping and BehaviorSocial Support as a ModeratorPersonality Differences as Moderator VariablesSection RecapActivities Part III: Psychological Properties of Motivation 8     Drives, Needs, and Awareness  Drives and Needs as Internal Sources of MotivationInteraction of Push and Pull MotivationPhysiological Needs and Psychological DrivesCharacteristics of Psychological NeedsMaslow’s Theory of NeedsSection RecapSome Important Psychological NeedsAchievement MotivationFactors that Affect Achievement MotivationAn Achievement Goal FrameworkNeed for PowerNeed for CognitionSelf-Esteem, Relatedness, Autonomy, and CompetenceNeed for Affiliation and IntimacySelf-Determination TheorySection Recap Motivation without AwarenessReflexologyAuto-Motive HypothesisSection RecapActivities 9     Personality and Self in MotivationPersonality Associated with MotivationTemperament, Personality, and BehaviorPersonality Traits as Categories or Causes of BehaviorPersonality Traits for MotivationBiological Reality of TraitsSection RecapPersonality Traits Affect MotivationPersonality and EnvironmentEffects of Extraversion on MotivationEffects of Neuroticism on MotivationEffects of Conscientiousness on MotivationEffects of Agreeableness on MotivationEffects of Multiple Traits on MotivationHappiness and the Big Five Personality TraitsEffects of Sensation Seeking on MotivationSection RecapSelf as a Motivational SystemSelf-ConceptSelf-EsteemSection RecapActivities Part IV: External Sources of Motivation 10     Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation and Incentive ValueReinforcers and Punishers versus IncentivesObjective and Subjective Incentive ValueIncentives as Losses and GainsSection RecapFactors That Affect Incentive ValueAmountChoice between Simultaneous ReinforcersContrast EffectsTemporal Motivation TheorySection RecapIntrinsic MotivationDifferences between Extrinsic and Intrinsic MotivationPurpose of Intrinsically Motivated BehaviorInteraction between Extrinsic and Intrinsic MotivationExtrinsic and Intrinsic Motivational OrientationsSection RecapActivities 11     Goal MotivationOrigins of GoalsIncentives versus GoalsSources of GoalsSection RecapGoal Characteristics and ExpectationsCharacteristics of GoalsExpected Utility TheoryFramingProspect TheorySection RecapGoal Commitment and Goal AchievementCommitting to a GoalAchievement BehaviorsGoal Achievement and Goal FailureSection RecapActivities 12     Economics of MotivationMotivation Costs and ResourcesCost of Motivated BehaviorMotivation ResourcesSection RecapSpending Motivation ResourcesDemand LawElasticityElasticity and the Substitution EffectSection RecapMotivation Toward Least EffortEarly Views on Effort and MotivationChoices Based on Least EffortBehavior and Thought Based on Least EffortSection RecapActivities Part V:  The Emotions 13     Emotions and MoodsCharacteristics and Categories of Emotions What Is an Emotion?Methods for Uncovering Basic EmotionsCharacteristics of AffectIntensity and Duration of EmotionsSection RecapThe Function of ArousalArousal and Physiological VariablesJames-Lange TheoryCognitive Arousal TheoryCannon’s Theory of ArousalSection RecapMoodsDifferences between Moods and EmotionsTime of Day, Day of WeekSeasonal Variation Section RecapActivities 14     Emotions as MotivesAppraisal of the Emotion EventEvent-Appraisal-Emotion SequenceCharacteristics of the Emotion SituationProcessing of Emotion StimuliAmygdala and Emotion-Event ProcessingSection RecapEmotions Motivate Facial ExpressionsBrain, Facial Muscles and ExpressionExpression-Feeling LinkInnateness of Facial Expression of EmotionFunction of Facial ExpressionSection RecapThe Motivating Function of EmotionsEmotion as Motives for BehaviorSection RecapMotivational Nature of Positive EmotionsAim of Positive EmotionsSubjective Well-BeingSection RecapActivities ReferencesIndex